Trade In mediaeval Rajasthan has a great history. Rulers of princely states knew the importance of internal and external trade because the trade was a chief source of revenue collection, after the land revenue and crop taxes.
No doubt, the small artisans, craftsmen and farmers were the back bone of supply of various consumable items and different commodities but without the traders and merchants. no trade was possible at all.
Internal Trade
Though the manufacture of some of the commodities was regularised in workshops owned by different states in Rajasthan, much of the work produced was prepared and sold at the doors of home-cum-shops of the craftsmen.
Normally each craft or trade was concentrated in a separate street or bazar, where the craftsmen had their own workshops, stalls and homes. The towns of Rajasthan had separate streets meant for different craftsmen who both lived and carried their trade in that particular locality. Even upto this date many streets and lanes are still known after the craftsmen who live there, suchas Chipavas, in Jaipur, Chitaragali and Mochivada at Udaipur and so on.[1]
Besides local transactions in the regular shops and specialized lanes, there were special markets or mandis in towns, referred to by contemporary writers, which served as a convenient place for the disposal of surplus corn or goods produced in the neighbouring areas. Capital towns like Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Jaipur, Udaipur, Jodhpur, Ajmer, Kota etc., as well as commercial towns like Pali, Merta, Sadri etc. served as big clearing houses for whole of Rajasthan.
Peddlers and local dealers actively participated in formulating domestic trade. An appreciable part of the output of some product was disposed of by the farmers peddling their produce to the markets of nearby villages and towns. Business in big towns were also carried with the help of brokers who finalised transactions by charging their commission to both parties. The trading class of Vaishy as carried on their commercial activities through buying, selling, borrowing, crediting and contracting processes.[2]
Markets and Fairs
We also know through our records about the market and fairs in which formal transactions took place, weekly or periodically, often in a sleepy little town or on the outskirts of some large centre. Sellers knew that if they took their wares to the appointed spot on the proper day and hours, they would find buyers gathered there. Weekly fairs (साप्ताहिक हाट) have been referred to in Jaipur records.[3]
They were held at the villages of Dhahip, Jaspur and Ramchowk of Jaipur. There were also periodical fairs of this category which lasted several days, or even some weeks. From Kota records[4] we learn that in Umaid Garh a fair lasted for several days from Aswin 4th to 15th of Kartika. The state authorities undertook the responsibility of protecting those traders who participated in the fair.
In one of the fairs of V.S. 1853 the Maharaja of Kota compensated the merchants for their losses incurred in a dacoity.[5] Sometimes merchants were certified to bring their merchandise in the fairs and they were guaranteed safety of their merchandise and exemption from local taxes.[6]
Some of the landlords on whose land fairs were held were authorised to protect and control them and collect tolls and stall-fees from the traders by special grants. Harnath, Girdhar, Shripati, Ghasi Ram and Bhulo were the landlords who were entrusted with the charge of collection of tolls at the fairs of Devli Machaki and Nithawa in Kota district, and were permitted sh are of the collection with the government.[7]
In some places like Pushkar, Parvatsar, Rajnagar and Nagor fairs attained fame and flavor to an extent that goods and traders were attracted from a wide area, and their business was wholesale rather than retail. These places were also reputed for holding cattle fairs where horses, oxen, camels, cows and buffalos were brought for sale. In order to levy or dispose of their animals and goods people came long distances.[8]
In an age of small trade volume and slow transportation such markets saved time and travel, and offered continuous opportunities for obtaining what the buyers desired.
However, it must be noted that much trade was conducted privately, as for example the purchase of wool in are as of Jaisalmer and Bikaner and cotton in Kota or of grain in the western and eastern parts of Rajasthan as informed by the contemporary records,[9] by merchants who went around the producing regions and bought them at the spot. This resulted in making the farmer dependent on the middlemen, who were better acquainted with market conditions.
In most cases[10] the farmers also borrowed from these middlemen, who usually bound the producers either to sell them their produce at lower price or sell their produce through them. Such a marketing structure left the agricultural credit undeveloped.[11]
As to the standard of commercial morality we have scanty accounts to draw any conclusive inference. But, however, various references[12] made to individual fortunes amassed through commercial enterprise lead us to think that the tradesmen worked out every possible means of earning a dishonest penny.
Cases[13] of adulteration and fraudulent weights, tried by tradesmen of Jodhpur were not absent during our period of study. In order to exercise an effective control against such mal-practices the governments appointed special officials to exercise rigid control over sale and purchase of food-stuff in open market.
The supervising staff for markets of Jaipur and Kota regularised the dealings by drawing daily charts specifying prices of grain and goods.[14] In certain regions of Rajasthan, where there was predominance of the Mughals, attempts were made to regularise the sale of salt which was manufactured in Sambhar and other villages in or about Jaipur.
This fact is ascertained from two letters[15], one from Muhammad Haiyat of 5th Jamad-us-Sani, 1127, Srawan Sud 7. 1767 (1710A.D.) to the Maharaja of Jaipur and another from the Maharaja to Nahar Khan, dated the 13th Rajab, 1127 H. Bhado Sud 15, V.S. 1767-1710A.D.) forbidding the sale of salt in Jaipur above the fixed rate.
Inter-State Trade
There are detailed evidences about the existence of inter-state trade relations in Rajasthan. Literary sources[16] mention that after the close of rainy season the traders went in groups to the neighbouring areas. Times they would go to distant parts also and return after a very long period.
From Nensi[17] we learn that cloth, tobacco, grains and salt were articles of inter-state trade. For such trade Sirohi, Jalore, Phalodi, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Ajmer, Amber, Merta, etc. were inter-connected with roads. Nominal taxes on local imports and exports were levied at various centers. As for example, for a camel-load carrying 10 mds. (equivalent to 5 mds. of our days) of articles from Jaisalmer to Bikaner Rs. 3/4 were charged as tax, and Annas 12 were charged an a horse-load.
The Banjaras also helped to maintain internal and external trade by carrying articles from one place to another. It appears from the Dastri records[18] that their arrival at Jodhpur with grain, particularly during famine, was welcomed. In V.S. 1840 (1783A.D.) the Maharaja of Jodhpur bestowed a necklace of pearls and robe of honour on Dhanna, Durga, Moti and their leader Nanu who came to Jodhpur with grain.
External Trade
The expansion of Rajasthan’s external trade was facilitated by the state’s favourable position between northern and southern parts of our country. From the early mediaeval period Rajasthan had maintained commercial routes between Delhi on one hand and Gujarat and Malwa regions on the other. In the Mughal period Ajmer, Nagor, Merta, Chitor, etc. served as links between the Mughal Empire in the north and Mughal subahs in the south. Rajasthan’s trade with north, south, east and west was further facilitated when Bayana, Amarkot, Morwana, Patan and Ajmer became the chief outlet for the exported and imported goods.[19]
The diversity of the state’s natural resources and of the goods produced, on the one hand, and the rise of a wealthy upper class on the other were conducive to the development of commerce. And indeed, trade- both external and internal-played a role of paramount importance in Rajasthan’s economic life of this period. Among the main items of export leather goods, arms, textiles, indigo and opium may be mentioned.[20]
Woolen cloth, wooden toys, gold and silverwares were sent to the Mughal Court as articles of presents. The import consisted of cloths, date-palm, coconut, glass, gold, elephants, wine, velvets, dried fruits, embroidered curtains and other articles of decoration.[21] Our records show that ready-made petticoats and blouses of fine cloth of Burhanpur, turbans of Sarangpur, embroidered saris of Banar as and Patan and flowered silk and khim-khab of Gujarat and woolen cloths of Kashmir, chintz from Multan, fine cloths of Aurangabad were imported in Rajasthan.[22]
There was a great demand for the supply of horses of good breed in the states of Rajasthan. In a Shalihorta compiled during the time of Maharana Jagat Singh the writer has emphasised that the animal was of immense need for war, racing, conveyance and pleasure-riding.[23]
For procuring the best horses for the royal stables the princes paid fancy prices. Sometimes horses were purchased from foreign traders on installment basis. In V.S. 1707 (1650A. D.) Maharana Jagat Singh purchased a horse from Musa, and Rs. 1500 had to be paid in two installments to him.[24] The Rajvilas[25] mentions that horses from Turkey and Iraq were in great demand.
When the merchants from outside entered the limits of states, some- times every precaution was taken for their safe journey. In 1839 (1782A.D) Lalu and Malonu, dealers in elephants came from Delhi to Jodhpur, and the state took the responsibility of their safe journey and honoured them by conferring upon them robes of hononr in addition to paying them the price of the elephants purchased.[26]
A parvanah[27] of V. S. 1863 (1806A.D.) from the Rao of Semari (in Mewar) to Dolaji of Dhulav shows that ordinarily the foreign merchants had to pay an import duty to the state in addition to a fixed amount for providing them guards for the safe journey.
From our records[28] of the 18th century we get names of several merchants besides already referred to above, who settled down in Rajas- than, being attracted by the prospects of big profits in internal trade. Uttamch and Gujarati was a renowned merchant of Jaipur who was carrying had a on brisk trade between Jaipur and Gujarat. Bhavanid as of Jaipur branch of cloth shop at Burhanpur.
Shah Sujah, Murlidhar, Bholanath, Kangiri, Shah Lakshmana, Suleman Multani, Pandit Gangadhar Bakhatgiri, Jaikrishna, Gulab Bharati, Baba Dayalgiri, Shah Atma Rama and Gebilal were well known dealers in various articles at Kota. Hira of Parvatsar, Raichandr and Devdutt of Udaipur were important merchants of the period of our study. Many other names of the merchants may be added who originally belonged to the Punjab, Malwa, Gujrat and Kashmir and made Rajasthan the land of their domicile.
On a comparison of the nature of the articles imported and exported we are inclined to feel that Rajasthan was paying more on the goods of luxury needed for the princes, the Royal families and the nobility than earning from some indigenous products.
In determining the role of external trade we cannot ignore the lack of proper storage facilities especially for cereals, and the lack of rapid and regular transport connecting the producing centers with the main markets that Rajasthan of those days was facing. These facts adequately explain the weakness of the marketing structure, economic underdevelopment and unfavourable position of the volume of external trad.
Trade Routes
Trade and commerce required good roads for proper functioning. Military requirements also, it seems, had always stimulated road cons- routes which connected various towns of Marwar and Mewar through truction. Early epigraphic records[29] of 10th to 13th century mention Pali, Jaisalmer, Ahad, Jalore, Medta, Badmed, Nadulai, Juna etc.
They further mention that Madhyadesh (the midland coutnry), the country lying between the Himalay as on the north, the Vindhya mountains on the south, Vinasana on the west, Prayag on the east, Agra and Delhi on the north-east were connected with various parts of Rajasthan.
With the coming of the Turks and the Mughals, and with the industrial and agricultural development stimulus was given to Rajasthan traffic, especially with the northern empire and the provinces of Gujarat and Malwa. In order to join new marts or find new roads for marching armies, several routs came into prominence, the details of which may be given on some other occasions.
In conclusion, we can say that trade In mediaeval Rajasthan was flourishing under the aegis of rulers of princely states.
REFERENCES
[1] DR. G. N. Sharma, Some Aspects Of Internal and External Trade In Rajasthan, Proceedings of Rajasthan History Congress, 1968, pp. 56-61.
[2] Rajvilas, Canto II vv. 92-136; Udaipur Gazat, vv 34-66; Ajitodaya, Canto I, v. 27; Jaisalmer Gazal, vv. 70-75.
[3] Rojnamcha, V. S. 1826 (JA).
[4] Bhandar No. 1, File No. 12-61. V. S. 1835.
[5] Bhandar, No. 3, Basta No. 3, File No. 28, V. S. 1853.
[6] Bhandar, No, 1, Busta No. 1, File No. 33, V. S. 1858.
[7] Bhandar No. 1. Basta No. 101, V.S. 1749.
[8] Archival RecordsAjmer, Pushkar File No. 25, 1824A.D.; Tod: Personal Narrative, Chap. XXIX.
[9] Bhandar No. 1, Basta 10, file No. 29, V.S. 1749 (KA) Rojnamah Pida, V. S. 1773 for the month of Phalguna; Rojnamah Sati and Karoi parganah, V. S. 1795 for the month of posh.
[10] Khemo of Bherunda and Lakhmo of Nama promised to sell their orops to Hemraj, vide document, No. 125, Jama Kharch Bahi Jodhpur V. S. 1815.
[11] DR. G. N. Sharma, Some Aspects Of Internal and External Trade In Rajasthan, Proceedings of Rajasthan History Congress, 1968, pp. 56-61.
[12] Bhattarak pattavali, V.S. 1697 to 1757, No. 430 (Sambhav Nath Bhandar Udaipur) refers to several individuals of this category.
[13] Havala Bahi, V.S. 1911 refers to the cases of adulteration and fraudulent weight at Nagaur and Sojat in which Bhura Kabra and Bhandari Devach and were in- volved.
[14] Nirakh Bazar, [V.S. 1755 (JA); Nirakh Bazar, V. S. 1760 for the months of Sravana, Jaipur and other villages (JA); Nirakh Bazar, V.S. 1760 for the months of Sravana, Jaipur and other villages (JA), ff. 2-17.
[15] Persian correspondence, III, Letters Nos. 1181-1182 (JA).
[16] Varsharatura-Doha, No. 183, v. 29, f. 88a (SBLU); Chandra Kunwar-ri-Varta, 56b (SBLU).
[17] Nensi’s Khyat, ff. 47a, 98a, 134a.
[18] Dastri Bahi, 10th of the dark-half of Posh and 14fh nf the bright-half of Posh, V,S. 1840.
[19] Akbarnama, P. T. 7-14, II, pp. 517, 539, III, pp. 87, 92, 244, etc.; Tuzuk, R and B, I, pp. 340-349, II, 63-64; Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh by Sujan Ray, ff. 2776, 278a; Mirat-i-Ahmadi, I, ff. 103-105, 127, II, f. 92a.
[20] Finch: Early Travels in India, 1503-1619 (1921), p. 123, Hat Bahi, V. S. 1823; Mahamani Bahi, Kota, V. S. 1843.
[21] Jama Kharch Bahi No. 44 (JA), V.S. 1729-1735, etc.; Ted:Annals, II, p. 107; Thorton ii, p. 324.
[22] Bhandar No. 1, Basta No. 4, V. S. 1739; Dastur Komwar, V.S. 1785, f. 20; Dastur Komwar, 6th of the bright-half of Vaishakha, V. S. 1791, f. 323.
[23] Shalihotra, V. S, 1706 (1649A.D.), (Shantiuath Bhandar, Udaipur).
[24] Parwanath of Jagat Singh, 15th of the bright-half of Magh, V.S. 1707 (Vidya Pith Collection, Udaipur).
[25] Raj Vilas, Canto II, f. 46.
[26] Dastri Bahi. 13th of the dark-half ofAsoj, V. S. 1839.
[27] Parvanah, 13th of the bright-half of Chaitra, V. S. 1863, Phulpankahadi Bahi of Govind Rama, Dhulev.
[28] A letter to Raich and from Harchand, 1st of bright-half of Kartika, V. S. 1754 (Vidya Pith Collection, Udaipur);A Patta of Amar Singh II to Deva Dutt, 3rd of the dark-half of Posh, V. S. 1763 (ODRU); Dastur Komwar, Vol. XV, f. 85 V. S. 1799; Bhandar No. 16. Basta No. 6, V. S. 1816, 1842, 1855, etc.
[29] Sarnath inscription, V. S. 1010, The Bhavnagar Inscription, No. I, pp. 67-69; Nadlai inscription, V.S. 1202; The Jaina Inscriptions, I, No. 846, p. 214; Pali inscription, V. S. 1213, The Jaina Inscriptions, II, No. 1716, p. 167; Jalore ins- cription, No. 899, The Jaina Inscriptions, I, pp. 238-239; Juna inscription V. S. 1352, The Jaina Inscriptions, I, p. 243; Badmed inscription V. S. 1352; The Jaina inscriptions, I, No. 749, pp. 179-180.
