In Rajput Period, Jain Writers Of Rajasthan wrote many valuable books which provide rich historical account of contemporary politics and cultural practices of the society.
Jainism in Rajasthan made a striking progress under the patronage of Rajput rulers.[1] Several feudatory chiefs[2] and the merchants of Rajasthan also contributed to the growth of this religion by constructing temples and images.[3]
The literary activities of the Jains during the period were very intense. Although they began writing their literature in Sanskrit as early as 1st-2nd century A.D. It is only from the 8th century on wards that Sanskrit began to predominate and there are quite a number of Jain pieces of Sanskrit literature which favorably compare with the best in that language.[4]
Prakrit was regarded a holy language by the Jains. Their Agams were composed in them, but they could not keep themselves aloof from Sanskrit. which had still retained its influence on the learned and was honored as the cultural language of the nation.[5]
The cultivation of Apabhramsa by the Jains also dates from about the 8th century and in the period some of the best works in that language were produced. A large number of literary works written by the Jain writers in Apabhramsa are still found preserved in the Jaina Sastrabhandar of Rajasthan.[6] Their contribution to the different branches of knowledge such as grammar, poetics including kosas, fictions, metrics, ethics, religion, etc. is unique.[7]
Among the Jaina writers, Haribhadra Suri, a Svetambar scholar of Chittor (c. 700-770 A.D.) was an outstanding personality. Though born in Brahamana family yet he was more a Jain than a Brahmana. He was a poet, philosopher and disputant who wrote a large number of books in Prakrit and Sanskrit.[8] His principal works are Dhurtrakhyana and Samaraichakaha. The former is a remarkable satire in Indian literature.[9]
The Samaraichakaha is a Prakrit gadya kavya interspersed with verses, which drives this fact that a man suffers because of his bad actions and can rise only by cultivating good virtues.[10] Similarly, in his ‘Shabl darsana Samuchchaya’ he gives brilliant exposition of the different systems of philosophy of the day.[11]
His Sanskrit commentaries on the Agams often contain illustrative stories in simple Prakrit and were probably reproduced from the floating mass of the Prakrit story fiction orally transmitted among the followers of Jainism.[12]
His other works are the Dharambindu, Lalitavigtara, Yogavindu, Updesapada, Sodaka Panchasaka, etc.[13]
The work of elucidating canonial texts in Sanskrit, began by Haribhadra Suri was continued by his pupil Uddoyotana Suri, who wrote Kuvalyamala in 778 A.D. at Jalore.[14]
It is a religious tale (Dhar- amkatha) narrated in Prakrit prose and verse on the pattern of the Sanskrit champu-kavya. The principal Prakrit employed in the work is the Maharashtri, but short and long passages, usually of a descriptive nature, are also found in Apabhramsa and even in Paisachi language.[15] This religious tale gives good insight into the cultural conditions of the period in Rajasthan.
Contemporaries to Haribhadra Suri and Uddyotana Suri, were some other Jain scholars who contributed to literature during the 8th century. For example, Umasvati,[16]
Tattvartha digama-Sutra which is accepted as an authoritative exposition of Jain philosophy by both the Digambar as and Svetumbaras. Mallavadan was the author of the Nayachakra, a book on Anekanta philosophy. The Dharmottar tipanaka, a commentary on the Buddhist logical treatise, Nyayabindu-tika, was also ascribed to him.[17]
Similarly, the Nyayavatara and the Sanmatitarka, the two important works on logic were written by Sidhasena.[18]
Even after the eighth century, literary activities continued among the Jains. Virasena, who was originally a resident of Elacharya, migrated to south, where he wrote the Dhavala and the portion of the Jayabhavala in the ninth century.[19] Silacharya wrote the Chhaup-panna-mahapurusca-chariam in 838 A.D. at Jaisalmer.[20] Jayasimhasuri, a pupil of Krishnarishi, composed the Dharimopadasamalavarana in 858 at Nagaur.[21]
Bhinmal, one of the most famous seas of learning[22] was associated with the Jaina writers during the period also. The well known scholar Sidharsi Suri wrote the Upamitibhav prapancha katha in 905 A.D.[23] It is as much a work of philosophy as of poetry and is one of the finest allegories in any language. It has been written in simple and understandable Sanskrit.[24]
The Chandra kevali charita, another literary work of Sidharsi Suri, was written in 917 A.D.[25] At the same time Dhanpala wrote the Bhavisyatta-kaha in Apabhramsa.[26] Another writer of the same name, i.e. Dhanapala composed the Tilahmanjari in 970 A.D. at Sanchor.[27]
There are some other works of the Jains written during the tenth century. For example, the religious tale, Jnanpanchami-Katha was composed by Mahesvara Suri, a pupil of Sojanan Upadhyaya, in the latter half of the teeth century [28] similarly the Jambudivapannatti of Padmanandi written at Bara in Kota is also a famous work of the tenth century .[29]
It is interesting to note that the Kharatargachchna sect of the Jains, which came into existences in Rajasthan at the beginning of the eleventh century occupied a prominent place in the Jain history,[30] Jinesvara Suri and his followers received the designation of the Kharatara on account of their following rigidly one parh laid down in the Jaina scriptures.[31] Numerous works were written by Kharatargachchha writers between eleventh and twelvefth centuries.
Jinesvara Suri, the founder of the Khartargachchha, wrote the Lilavati katha, the Kathakosprakar ana, the Paramalaksma, the Panchlaksma, the Astakaprakarana vriti and the Chaityavandana-vivarana. In the Katha-kosaprakarna, Jinesvara Suri has put together 36 tales in Prakrit, with a view to including people to take a life leading to Moksa.[32]
The Satsthanakaprakarna, or Prakrit work, deals with six sthanas or virtues, which should be cultivated by Jain laymen, and is useful not only to the students of Jain religion, but also to one of the social institutions of this period. The Panchalingiprakarna has 101 gathas and it deals with Panchlinga or five characteristics of a pure sravaka.[33] Contemporaries to Jinesvara Suri’s brother Buddhisagara Suri wrote a comprehensive Sans-krit and Prakrit grammar, the Panchagranthi, in 1023 at Jalore.[34]
Jinesvara Suri’s work was followed by his pupils Jinbhandracharya, Abhayadeva Suri and Jinachandra. Jinchadracharya[35] wrote the Surasundari katha in 1038 at Chandravati. It is a Prakrit work. He also wrote Samvegarangasala, a manuscript of which exists at Jaisalmer,[36] Abhayadeva is a famous Jaina writer as a commentator on the nine Jaina Angas, of which the most extensive is the Bhagavati Sutra.[37] Jinachandra wrote the Samvegarangsala, a Prakrit Katha in 1068.[38]
Jinavallabha Suri, a prolific writer and a pupil of Jinachandra made Chittor the centre of his activites in the eleventh century. He strengthened the Khartargachha by writing the Samghapattaka and Pindavisudhiprakarna.[39]
Jinddutta Suri [40] (1112-1154), a pupil of Jinvallabha Suri and a great Jain Acharya [41] was highly respected by Arnoraj of Ajmer for his learning and character.[42] He wrote Sanskrit, Prakrit and Apabharmsa. The Upadesarasayana-rasa, Charchart and Kaalsvauupakulaka are his famous Apabhramsa works.[43] He was a writer of great vigour, with command over the popular medium of expression.[44]
Jinapati Suri (1153-1200), a pupil of Jinachandra Suri II was not only a redoubtable debator but also a writer of philosophic and theo- logical works45. His famous works are commentaries on the Sanghapattaka and Panchlingani.[45] He also wrote an original work, the Prabodhavadasthala advocating the Vidichaitya point of view regarding temples and Jaina ceremonies. It eloborated mainly the arguments he advanced in his discussion with Pradyumnacharya of Aspaalli.[46] Jinapati Suri was followed by his pupil Jinapala Upadhayaya in the thirteenth century Thus, the Khartargachchha scholars contributed a lot to enrich the literature.[47]
Besides, the Kharatara scholars, there were scholars, there were some other Jain scholars during the period between eleventh and twelventh century. Sadh- arana wrote the Vilavati katha in 1066. It is an Apabharamsa work the Samaraich chakaha of Haribhandra Suri.[48] Devchandra Suri wrote Santinathacharita, a Prakrit work in 1103. A year later, the Prthvichandra charita was written by Santi Suri in 1104.[49]A Munichandra Suri, the famous Jaina scholar, began a treaties on the Upadespada of Haribhadra at Nagaur. It was completed at patan in 1117.[50]
Next followed the work of Hemchandra (1089-1173), a pupil of Abhayadev Suri, and a prominent Jain monk. His famous work was the Bhavabhavana, which was written by him in 1113 during his stay at Merta.[51] The Kavyanusasana is another excellent work. It lucidly sets forth various topics of Alankara Sastra.[52] Hemchandra Suri also wrote numerous works on grammar, poetics, philosophy and history.[53]
Vijayasimha Suri, a pupil of Jinachandra Suri, who lived in the latter half of the 12th century composed a commentary of the Vineyajanahita tika on the Jambudvipuamasa of Umasvati by putting up with Sreshthisahara in 1158. A year latter, Mahendra Suri wrote the Narmada Sundari Katha in 1150.[54] Simthakavi wrote the Pajjunnakaba in the twelfth century at Bambhanavada near Sirohi.[55]
We might now turn to the famous Digambar scholars who also enriched literature.[56] Samantabhadra (8th century) was a great Digambar scholar, who wrote a commentary on the Tattvartha dhigama Sutra, called the Gandhastimahbhasya Harisen, who belonged to Chitor and migrated to Achalapura wrote the Dharampariksa in 987.[57] Another writer of the same name wrote the Brhtkathakosa during the reign of the Pratihara empire, though not in Rajasthan.[58] Towards the end of tenth century. Dhavala wrote the Apabhramsa kavya the Pasanahachariu at Gundijj nagar.
Next followed the work of Durgadev, a Jain poet, who wrote the Rishtasammuchaya in the reign of Lakshmivivsa at Kaman in 1032,[59] Asadhara was also a Digambara scholar. a Digambara scholar. He belonged to Mandalgarh in Sapadalaksa but he migrated to Malwa. So most of his work was done in Malva.[60] Laksman, who belonged to Tahangarh, wrote a very good Apabhramsa kavya, Jinayatta Chariu. He also wrote a book on the Jaina vows called Aunvratarotnapradipa.[61]
The literary activities of the Jaina writers prospered under the patronage of the royal families of Rajasthan. The Chouhan rulers of Ajmer were the great patrons of Jainism. Several copies of the manuscripts were prepared during this period. In 1141, a copy of the Avasyakasutra niryakti was prepared by Madhala in order to present it to the nun Bandhumati during the region of Arnoraj.[62] The Svetambara scholar Dharmaghosa Suri, wrote the Dharamakalpadruma. He received a jayapatra from Arnoraja by defeating his Digambara rival, Gunachandra.[63]
Yasobhadra. a pupil of Dharamgosa Suii, wrote the Gadyagodavari and a commentary on the Agamikavastnvi Charasara of Jinvallah.[64] Sthirachandragani, a Jaina monk who started writing a copy of the Panchasakavritti of Abhyadeva Suri at Pali, completed it at Ajmer in 1150.[65]
Vigraharaj IV, the Chouhan ruler, was great scholar who wrote the Harakali drama. He extended his patronage to Somesvara, a Jain scholar, who Lalitavigraharaja.[66] During the region of Prithviraja III, a debate was held in 1182 between Jinapati Suri and Padmaprabha, a Chaityavari of Upakesa – gachha, in which Jinapati Suri emerged victorious.[67]
Many famous Jaina writers flourised in the court of other royal families of Rajasthan, where they continued their literary activities.[68] Special mention might be made of Yasovir (v. 12S5-v. 1278), a Jaina poet and prominent chief minister who flourished during the reign of Udaya Simha, the Chouhan ruler of Jalor. Somesvara describes him as a great poet surpassing even Magh and Kalidas in poetic excellence.[69]
Jinbhadracharya, wrote the Surasundart katha in Prakrit in 1038., underthe patronage of the Paramara rulers of Chandravati:[70] Similarly Dharamadhara, a Jaina poet was prominent for his meritorious works in poetly under the Chandwar Chouhan.[71]
To conclude, the period under review witnessed intense literary activities by the Jain writers in all the three languages viz. Sanskrit, Prakrit and Apabhramsa. But Prakrit being no longer the spoken language of the people, had lost its old advantage over Sanskrit and was being gradually displaced either by the latter or by Apabhramsa, the vernacular of the people.
As a result of contribution in the literature in Apabhramsa contributed to the development of the provincial languages of India such as Hindi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Marathi etc. The most interesting branch of the Jain literature during this period was katha lirerature which is very extensive, varied and wide spread over Sanskrit, Prakrit, Rajasthani and old Hindi.
This indigenous and original katha-literature throws light on the cultural aspects of the society of Rajasthan.
Hence we see that literature created by Jain Writers Of Rajasthan contributed a vast knowledge to the society.
ABBREVIATIONS
| 1. A.J.K | Aitihasika Jain Kavyasmagraho. Edited by Agar Chand Nahta, Calcutta, V.S. 1994. |
| 2. A.B.I. | Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report. |
| 3. E.C.D. | Early Chauhan Dynesties, Dr. Dashratha Sharma, Delhi, 1959. |
| 4. G.O.S. | Gaekwad’s Oriental Series. |
| 5. J.B.O.R.S. | Journal of Bihar &Orissa, Research Society, Patna. |
| 6. J.S.S.I. | Jain Sahityano Samkshipta Itihas, M.D. Desai, Bombay, 1953. |
| 7. J.G.P.S. | Jain Grantha Prasati Samgraha. ed. J.K, Mukhtar, Delhi, 1954, |
| 8. K.B. | Khartargachchha Brihadgurvavli ed. Munijinvijaya, Bombay, 1956. |
| 9. R.T.A. | Rajasthan Through The Ages, Vol. I Rajasthan State Archives, Bikaner, 1966. |
REFERENCES
[1] (i) Vatsaraja, the Gurjara-Pratihar of Bhinmal built a temple at Osian in V.E. 1013 i.e. A D.
956, A.S.I., 1906-07, pp. 209-242.
(ii) Ajayararaja, the Chauhan ruler of Ajmer permitted Jains to build a temple in Ajmer and he himself presented a golden kalasa to the temple of Parasnath (K.B. p. 16)
(iii) Arnoraj granted a plot of land to the followers of the Kharatar- agachchha for the construction of a temple at Ajmer. (K.B. p. 16)
(vi) Vigraharaja IV (Ajmer) built a Jaina Vihar at Ajmer and pro- hibited the slaughter of animals on certain days in the year (K.B. 16). Similarly Someswar granted villages to the temple of Parasnath of Bijolia (AI, XXVI, pp. 56-97).
[2] Padmanabha, the minister charged with the duty of holding confer- ences of poets may have been the writer of Prithviraj III’s Bedla Inscription of v. 1234. Marubharti, ii. part 3, p. 3.
[3] The Jaina temple at Mount Abu was built by Vastupal and Tejpal in 1230 A.D., Rajputana Ka Itihas, p. 200.
[4] Jain Jyoti Prasad, “The Jaina sources of the History of Ancient India, p. 243.
[5] The Age of Imperial Kanauj, Vol. IV, Bombay, 1955, p. 2.
[6] Files of Jaina Antiquary, Arrah & amp; Jaina Siddhanta Bhaskara, Arrah.
[7] Basham A.L., The wonder that was India, London, 1954, P. 285.
[8] (i) He was a learned Brahmana and pupil of Jinabhata Suri.The Age of Imperial Kanauj, op. cit. p. 207.
(ii) Muni Jinavijaya fixed Haribhadra’s date as 700-770 A.D. Jinvijaya, Date of Haribhadra, summaries. AIOC poona.
(iii) Dr. Sharma is of the opinion that Haribhadra accepted Jainism merely because it appeared to him as more rational than othersystems of thought. E.C.D. XXIV, p. 221.
[9] Dr. A.N. Upadhya, Singhi Jaina Granthamala, Bombay, p. 1944.
[10] R.T.A., p. 518.
[11] It was summarised into Sanskrit by Pradyumna Suri in 1207 A.D. Dr. Jacobi, Herman, Introduction to Samaraicca-kaha, Premi volumep. 451.
[12] The Age of Imperial Kanauj, op. cit, p. 208.
[13] Dr. Jacobi, op. cit., p. 451.
[14] J B.OR.S., 1923, March, p. 28.
[15] Ibid.
[16] Umasvati known as Vachakasramana. E.C.D., p. 277, p. 14.
[17] Ibid.
[18] J.S.S.I., p. 186.
[19] J.G.P.S., p. 90 (introduction).
[20] E.C.D., pp. 282-283, F. No. 26.
[21] J.S.S.I., p. 180.
[22] The scholars of this place were well known for their lear aing and wis- dom. The famous astronomer Bramha Gupta wrote the Brahmas Sphuta Sidddhanta in 628 A.D. Similarly the Poet Magh, author of Sisupalvadha, aiso lived in 660 A.D.
Jain, K.C., Ancient Cities and Towns of Rajasthan, Delhi, 1972, p.560.
[23] COS, LXXVI, p. 156.
[24] Ibid.
[25] Ibid.
[26] J.S.A.I., p. 467.
[27] Ibid.
[28] The Age of Imperial Kanauj, op. cit., pp. 209-210.
It is a poem in Prakrit containing 2000 gathas and illustrates the religious importance of the Jinana-panchami, which is a name given to the fifth day in the first half of the month of Kartika.
[29] Indian Antiquary, Vol. 21, p. 57.
[30] Desai, Jaina Sahiyano Itihas. p. 412.
[31] Jinesvara Suri and his followers defeated the Chaity avasins in a reli- gious discussion at the court of Durlabharaja Chaulukya of Gujarat and established their own sect known as Vidhi Marg, which later on designated as the Kharatargachchha.
Desai, op. cit., p. 412.
[32] Aithihasika Jaina Kavya Sangraha, p. 4, ed. Agar Chand Nahata, Calcutta, v.s. 1994.
[33] Jaisalmer Catalogue of Palm-leaf, MMS., p. 55.
[34] Ibid.
[35] Ibid. He was known as also Dharesvara Suri.
[36] Jaisalmer Catalogue of Palm-leaf, MMS., p. 55.
[37] Manidhari Srichandra Suri, Asatham Shatabadi, Smirti Granth, Delhi, 1971, p. 7.
[38] Desai, op. cit., p 412.
[39] Manidhari Srichandra Suri, op. cit., p. 20.
[40] His early name was Somchanda, A.J.K., pp. 14-16.
[41] Ibid., Acharya title was given to him by his Guru Dharamadevop- adhyaya at Chitor in 1112 A.D.
[42] A.J.K., p. 14-16.
[43] Ibid.
[44] Ibid., E.C.D., p. 271.
[45] A.J.K., p. 16.
[46] Ibid.
[47] Ibid.
[48] E.C.D. pp. 282-283 F. No. 26.
[49] Ibid.
[50] Desai, op. cit., p. 242.
[51] Ibid., p. 248.
[52] Second Revised edition published by Shri Mahavir Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay, 1964.
[53] Ibid.
[54] E.C.D., p. 282-283 F. No. 29.
[55] Rajasthan Bharti, Vol. III, No. 2.
[56] E.C.D., p. 277, F. No. 14.
[57] Jain gatha-prasati-Sangraha, Pt. ii, ed. Pandit Parmanand Shastri, p. 4.
[58] Ibid.
[59] SJS, XXI, (Introduction)
[60] Ibid.
[61] R.T.A., p. 521.
[62] Jain, K.C., op. cit, p. 306.
[63] Catalogue of the Palmleaf MSS in the Pattan Bhandars, p. 395, v. 10.
[64] Ibid., p. 394, Desai, op. cit. p. 411.
[65] G.O.S., XXI, p. 7.
[66] E.C.D., p. 63.
[67] K.B., pp. 25-33.
[68] Arbuda lekhatan doha Inscription, No. 150-151.
[69] Kirti kaumudi, I. p. 26.
[70] A.P.J.L.S., p. 43.
[71] Anekanta, March, 1955, pp. 227 ff.
