The lyrical expression and the graphic description of Gopala-Krishna in the Gopala stavas of the same text are the representations of vivid iconic imagery of Gopala-Krishna sub-sect that have been carved in various temples of Rajasthan as well as other Vaishnava-shrines of India.
A large number of iconographical representation depicting the various incidents in the early life of Krishna unmistakably point to the emergence of the Gopala-Krishna sub-sect of Vaishnavism [1] in the early centuries of the Christian era.
The discovery of these sculptural reliefs from different parts of India, like Mathura, Rajputana, Paharpur, Deogarh etc., clearly prove the popularity of this particular Vaishnavite imagery from the Gupta period onwards. But of all these Rajasthan is deemed to be the store-house of the varied icons of Gopala-Krishna. “In fact Krishna cult became much more popular in this part of the country and its best manifestation can also be found in the Rajput paintings – a fact which is well known to every student of Indian art and culture. [2]
The object of worship of the Gopala-Krishna sub-sect is the child-Krishna who grew up in the house of Nanda in company with his brother Balarama. “The cult of the child-Krishna made a special appeal to the warm maternity of Indian womanhood; and even today the simpler woman of India, while worshipping the divine child, so delightfully naughty despite his mighty power, refer to themselves as “the Mother of God.” [3]
The germs of this sub- sect may be traced in early literature as well as in archaeological evidences; but the story in its developed form the birth of Krishna in the prison of Kansa, his secret removal to the house of Nanda, bringing up by Yashoda, early life among cowherds, miraculous acts like holding up of Govardhana hill, killing of Putana and Kaliya-naga, etc., amorous dalliance with gopis or cowherd girls, particularly with Radha are found in detail in the literature of the later period. An entire chapter of the Vishnu-Purana (fifth-part) is devoted for narrating the story of Gopala-Krishna. Moreover, the Hari-Vansha, Bhagawata Purana and other sectarian works also deal with this subject exhaustively. Not only these sacred scriptures, but the classical works of this period also make frequent allusions to Krishna legends. [4]
The Jayakhya Samhita [5] eulogises Krishna in the form of a child. The Buddhist writer Asvaghosa (c. first century A D.) has an acquaintance with some of these miraculous deeds of Krishna, He thus mentions Krishna’s slaying of Kansa and the horse demon Kesin in a passage of the Saundarananda. [6]
In the Mudraraksasa Kesi-nisudana is also found in the Bhagavata Gita.[7] Kesava has been described as the destroyer of the horse demon Kesin.[8] Kalidasa refers to Vishnu in the form of a cowherd.[9] Jayadeva incidentally mentions the holding of the Govardhana hill by Krishna [10] and the killing of Kansa’s elephant named Kuvalayapida.[11]
Archaeological representations scattered over different places in Rajasthan would also reveal the prevalence of the marvellous feats of child Krishna. A list of sculptures [12] which seem to portray the entire life of child-god may be mentioned in the following:
1. Krishna lifting Govardhana mount (Govardhanadharana).
2. Yashoda churning milk; Yashoda nurshing the child-god on her breasts.
3. Vasudeva taking the child Krishna in his hand.
4. Krishna is shown stealing butter (navanita).
5. Krishna killing the horse and bull demons.
6. The upturning of the cart by child Krishna (Sakata-bhanga).
7. Murder of Putana (Putanavadha).
8. Killing of Kansa (Kansa Vadha).
9. The subjugation of the Naga-Kaliya (Kaliyadamana).
10. Krishna and Radha.
An analytical study would show that some of these exploits of the child god were not possibly conceived of before the emergence of the Guptas. Or, it may be said that the child god hardly got any universal recognition in its early stage. Thus, in the Sabhaparva of the Mahabharata Sisupala condemns Krisna with the following words: “If in his childhood he slew Shakuni (or the bird), or the horse and the bull, who had no skill in fighting, what is the wonder? If a wagon, and an inanimate piece of wood, were upset by him with his foot, what wonderful thing did he do? If the mountain Govardhana, a mere ant-hill, was built up by him for seven days, I do not regard that as anything remarkable, ………….If he, being a slayer of cattle, of woman, is to be reverenced how Bhishma, can such a person merit encomium? [13]
In the opinion of E.W. Hopkins the childhood tales of Krishna are of late (Pauranic) origin, and that most of the cow-boy exploits are post-epic. According to him the scene mentioned above “has been touched up by a late hand,” [14] Moreover, here we do not find mention the prevalence of all the exploits of child-Krishna, eg. Kaliyadamana, Krishna and Radha, etc., evidently showing their later addition J. N. Farquhar’s observation may be noted in this connection “When we turn to Bhishma’s praise of Krishna in Cha. 38, there is no mention of Putana, or the vulture, or any other of the exploits……. It is probable that these local legends had been long current in Mathura. The point we emphasize is that they had not been accepted into the official body of Vaishnava teaching when the didactic epic was formed.” [15]
Of the numerous scenes from the life of Gopala-Krishna, the first one (Govardhanadharana) is undoubtedly very prominent and popular as it is carved on not only almost all the Vaishnava temples in Rajasthan but also in other places like, Paharpur, Mathura, Deogarh etc. This incident is stated in the HariVansha, [16] Vishnu Purana, [17] Bhagavata [18] and many other Puranas. We are informed from these texts that the worship of Indra, the Vedic rain-god, was popular among the cowherds of Vraja. Gopala-Krisna put an end to this worship and introduced in its place the worship of the hill of Govardhana. He showed on this occasion his miraculous power by holding the mount on his fingers. Different interpretations have been put forward to explain this act of child god. According to some scholars an influence of the Buddhist Chaitya worship is found in it. While the suppression of the worship of Indra shows the Un-Vedic factors in the cult, attempts have simultaneously been made to establish the fact that many of the traits of the child- god may be traced to the various characteristic features of the Vedic Vishnu.[19]
This theme of the Krishnaite sub-sect has been interpreted differently by Navin Chandra Sen. He thinks that Krishna asked the cowherds not to worship the inanimate clouds, represented as Indra, and urged them to distribute the offerings of food to the Brahmanas and the untouchable Candalas equally. This incensed the Brahmanas, who surrounded the Govardhana like a host of dark clouds and shot arrows incessantly like rains at Krishna and his followers for seven days. But Krishna valiantly defended Govardhana and hoisted the flag of his new religion on the top of themountain. [20]
The conception of this Krishnaite mythology was fully evolved and well known by the time of the Guptas. In this connection we may cite here the Mandasor (old Gwalior State) stone inscription of the time of Naravarman (Malava year 461=404 A.D.). The records inform us that with the coming of the rainy season the festival of Indra began as it was “then (i.e., in the past) allowed by Krishna.” [21] It seems to refer to the episode of the lifting of the hillock Govardhana when Krishna after subduing Indra allowed his worship to continue.
The Vishnudharmottara [22] and the Brhat Samhita, [23] on the other hand, narrate a different story relating to the festival of Indra’s banner. It is stated that after being repeatedly vanquished by the Asuras, the gods headed by Indra went to Vishnu, who gave them his flag-staff which madeIndra achieve victory over the demons. Indra gave the banner to the kings, who must celebrate the festival of raising Indra’s banner in order to gain victory over their enemies. On the background of this episode we may analyse the above mentioned epigraphic record either of the two stories; but it distinctly furnishes an inkling of the increasingly predominant role of the Krishnaite cult. Indra, originally an independent deity, was associated with Gopala-Krishna sub-sect in one way or another. The idea of depicting Krishna as Govardhanadhari was very popular and prominent among the people in Rajasthan. R.C. Agrawala thus observes “the sculptors of these regions were perhaps very fond of depicting Govardhanadhari Krishna on square memorial pillar (Kirtti stambha) installed near some tank or the temple. On the sides of these pillars figure prominent gods, such as Surya, Vishnu, etc. But on all these pillars Vishnu has been depicted in his Krishnavatara and that too in the Govardhanadhari form. This gives sufficient idea of the importance attached to Krishna worship in a later period too.” [24]
Kaliyadamana or subduing of the naga Kaliya is another important theme to the devotees of this sub-sect for worshipping Gopala Krishna. This conception was not conceived of in these regions before 300 A.D. because the Jaina faith and the prevalence of the Naga cult were predominent in this place and its surrounding regions. But from the Gupta period onwards we find the prevalence of this image in almost all iconographical representations in Rajasthan. While in Bengal, the Kaliyadamana totally failed to be a popular conception with the Paharpur sculptors evidently because Naga cult was not of prime importance in that region; but the region with which we are concerned here was a stronghold of the Naga cult. Sankarshana’s connection with the snakes or the nagas shows that he was a deity of the Naga cult, or had absorbed in himself the influences of the Naga worship. Later on, Vasudeva’s association with him evidently indicates how the Naga cult was being indirectly associated with the flourishing cult of Krishna. [25]
Putana Vadha or killing of Putana is another interesting episode which evinces that the conflicts with various cults and sectarian rivalries also contributed to inflation of the Gopala-Krishna legends. In the Bhagavata Purana Putana appears in the guise of a beautiful young damsel; [26] but she appears to have been one of the attendant-mothers of Skanda [27] or a mother goddess of dreadful character who afflicted children. [28]
In the HariVansha [29] she is identified with Arya of the Aryastava. Pautanapura or the city of Putana is located in the Bharataksetra. [30] G. H. Ojha refers to a sculptural representation of Putana near the Hanumana temple at Arthuna in the Banswara State. [31]
We may thus assume that a clash between Krishna and Putana brought about for establishing their respective cult-ideology in which the former gained a decisive victory.
Again, the scene of Kansavadha or killing of Kansa, though rare in Rajasthan, is also another such representation which clearly expresses the cult conflicts of two local deities. In the Vishnu Purana and the HariVansha we have got an account how Krishna went to Mathura from Vraja or Gokula and alter several miraculous feats killed Kansa. H.C. Raychaudhuri [32] thinks that the enmity of Krishna with his maternal uncle, Kansa, appears to have a historical foundation as it is referred to by the Ghata Jataka, the Mahabhasya of Patanjali and the Mahabharata. Even as early as the time of Kautilya (c. fourth century B.C.) both Kansa and Krishna were adorned as pastoral deities by the people who were engaged in collecting medicinal herbs. [33]
It thus seems that the story of hostility between Kansa and Krishna is nothing but a symbolic expression of the struggle of two distinct local cults for gaining supremacy over each other. [34] Krishna ultimately won the game and established his cult. From the fragmentary verse of Kansavadha it appears that not everyone sympathised with Krishna, and there were people whose sympathies lay with Kansa. The expression ‘asad hurmatule Kisnah’, quoted by Patanjali, [35] was probably composed by the follower of Kansa. [36]
According to S. Chattopadhyaya “Kansa was a partisan of Siva and it is therefore quite probable that the Kansabhaktah refers to the Shaivites who were not well- disposed towards the cult of Vasudeva Krishna” [37]
The expressions Kansa-bhaklah and Vasudevabhaktah in the Mahabhasya are significant, meaningthat there were two distinct groups who followed two separate deities – viz: Kansa and Krishna, for worshipping. Kautilya mentions that these two gods were worshipped, as we have seen earlier by the people who were engaged for collecting medicial herbs showing the deification of Krishna and Kansa.
Shakata-bhanga or the up-turning of the cart is another interesting and popular theme of such category that has been sculptured not only in the various temples of Rajasthan but also in other parts of the country, like Deogarb, Badami, Sohagpur, etc. The killing of Asuras sent by Kansa for destroying Krishna has received adequate attention from Indian sculptors who flourished between the fourth and twelfth century A.D. All these attempts were made by Kansa to demolish the Krishna-cult which was at that time prevalent in a gaining condition.
The testimony of carving “the figures of Krishna and gopis in the rasalila pose” [38] and “Radha and Krishna (playing on his flute) sitting together” [39] on some temples in Rajasthan shows that the theme of adoration Krishna with to strengthen our contention we may further cite Radha was popular too. an inscribed fragmentary stone-piece from Mandore belonging to the early Pratihara period (c. eighth-ninth century A.D.) which refers to Hari (Krishna) having heard the words of Radhika at Gokula (Gopigirau Gokule Srutva Radhikaya Svabhusanvidhih Saureh krtah paninangane………rupam Hari patu vah). [40]
In fact, there is no evidence in Rajasthan in the early phase to represent ‘Krishna and Radha together, in amorous pose, the former touching the breast of the latter’; which was very popular to the sculptors of eastern India, particularly of Paharpur. It evidently shows that the Gopala Krishna sub sect in Rajasthan had not in any way come under the Tantric influence in the period under review. [41]
The inclusion of Radha into the cult of Krishna is undoubtedly of later origin, though Radha’s stray references are found in different earlier literatures [42] which ‘do not prove much’ about her antiquity. [43]
It is probable that when doctrinal elements introduced into the Krishna cult Radha’s association with Krena was then inevitable. Thus ‘of the mediaeval sects the Vallabhacaris and Nimbarkas appear to recognise Radha as an incarnation of Krishna’s energic power (Shakti) and his spouse in the divine sport. In some sects joint worship is accorded to Radha and Krishna, while in others (e. g. the Radhavallabhis who resemble the Vallabhacaris but are counted as a sub-sect of the Nimbarkas) she is the object of independent worship and is sometimes exalted even over Krishna, who figures under the title of Radha’s Beloved (Radha-vallabha).
As the highest fruition of devotion is the admission to the eternal sports of Krishna and Radha, the dangerous tendency towards erotic mysticism markedly develops as a creed, and the highly erotic possibilities of such belief are sometimes carried to a lamentable extreme.” [44]
The Yoga-maya account of the Vishnu Purana discloses ‘how the followers of the sub-sect were gradually making alliance with the Tantric mother cult.” [45]
And the later Vaishnava teachers identified Radha as the ‘Primeval Power’ or ‘Adhyaprakrti’ of the Lord showing a direct influence of the Samkhya conception of Purusa-Prakrti. B.B Majumdar, on the other hand, suggests that “the worship of Radha along with Krishna must have confined to the poor devotees, reluctant to devote their time and energy to the accumulationof riches.The richer classes preferred to worship Vishnu and Narayana with his consort Laxmi, the goddess of wealth. This is why the images of Radha and Krishna belonging to the pre-Caitanya period are comparatively rare.” [46]
As regards the origin of the legend of Krishna’s birth, his transfer from Matbura to Vraja or Gokula after he was born, his life as a herdsman, etc., some scholars find the influence of Christianity and the Christian legends. R.G. Bhandarkar thus propounds that the Abhiras were responsible to import such legends into the country.
He argues “If then about the end of the second century and in the third the Abhiras enjoyed high political position, they must have migrated into the country in the first century. They probably brought with them the worship of the boy-god and the story of his humble birth, his reputed father’s knowledge that he was not his son, and the massacre of the innocents. The two last correspond to Nanda’s knowing that he was not the father of Krishna and Kansa’s killing all children.
The stories of Krishna’s boyhood, such as that of killing Dhenuka, a demon in the form of a wild ass, were brought by Abhiras (JRAS, 1907, p. 981), and others were developed after they came to India. It is possible that they brought with them the name Christ also, and this name probably led to the identification of the boy-god with Vasudeva Krishna. The Goanese and the Bengalis often pronounce the name Krishna as Kusto or Kristo, and so the Christ of the Abhiras was recognised as the Sanskrit Krishna.” [47]
But it is difficult to accept the theory of the Cristian origin of these stories on the chronological ground. First, Patanjali in his Mahabhasya, [48] a work of c. 150 B.C., speaks of the Abhiras sudras, showing that they lived in India long before the time of the famous grammarian. It is needless to say that a long process is required for a foreign tribe to have a place in thefold of Hindu
social hierarchy. As Patanjali speaks of them as a sub-caste of the Sudras, the Abhiras must have been residing in India long before him to hold a status in the caste system. So, the people who entered India long before the time of Christ, could not bring with them the stories relating to W W. Tarn thinks “that they only entered into India during the Christ, period of confusions after Alexander’s death.” [49]
Quoting earlier account the Divyavadana (c. second century A D.) mentions two Abhira commoners of the time of Asoka. One of them had the same disease as Asoka, and was killed by Tisyaraksita, in an effort to find the cure; the other was the Thus Tarn seems to be right in stating the time of murderer of Vitasoka. [50] the Abhira migration to India sometime in the third century B.C., and by the time of the next century they made themselves fit to acquire a status into the fold of Hindu caste heirarchy. [51]
Secondly, Krishna is said to have grown up amidst the gopas and not with the Abhiras as referred to in the Vishnu Purana. The gopas can hardlybe identified with the Abhiras. In the Ramayana the Abhiras are described as a fierce-looking people (Ugradarshana) and as untouchables, while the Vishnu Purana [52] and the Bhagavata Purana [53] describe the gopas as Vaishyas and as comely in appearance. [54]
Thirdly, there is not a single record to connect the Abhiras with the Mathura or the Surasena country at an early date. Abiria or the Abhira country is located in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea [55] and also in the Geography [56] of Ptolemy in the region between the lower Sindhu Valley and Kathiwar, in South-western Rajputana and the adjoining regions.
The Mausala Parva of the Mahabharata [57] describes them as living near Pancanada, while, according to the HariVansha, they occupied ‘the tract of country from Madhuvana near Mathura to Anupa and Anarta, the region sround Dvaraka.’ [58] The Vishnu Purana and the Brhat Samhita place them near the A paranta (Konkan) and Saurastra. [59]
Again, there are some scholars who believe that the stories related to the worship of Child Krishna have been brought to India by the Nestorian missions. Mecnicol believes that “about the middle of the seventh century Nestorian missions (which are believed to have entered India from the north iu the year 639) may have brought stories of the child Christ as well as pictures and ritual observances which affected the story of Krishna specially in relation to the celebration of his birth-festival.” [60]
In fact, the theory propounded by Macnicol is also not free from doubt. We have already mentioned enough evidences, both archaeological and literary, to show that the practice of worshipping child Krishna was very popular in India before the coming of these Christian missionaries to India. Eliot’s observation in this context is worth-quoting: “there is little reason to regard Christianity as an important factor in the evolution of Hinduism, because (a) there is no evidence that it appeared in an influential form before the sixteenth century and (b) there is strong evidence that most of the doctrines and practices resembling Christianity have an Indian origin. ……I do not think that Nestorianism had any appreciable effect on the history of religious thought in Southren India.” [61]
H. C. Raychaudhuri [62] has pointed out that the pastoral legends of Krishna originated in Vishnu’s description as a gopa, herdsman, in a Rg Vedic hymn appears to be more reasonable than that of the foreign influence theory. But these legends developed and took a systematic shape in the later period, probably under the influence of the worship of some youthful god of the Abhira tribe, as well as some amount of Buddhistic influence on it, e.g. worship of hillock Govardhana, etc. [63]
A close perusal of the source materials at our disposal demonstrates the fact that it was through a process of synthesis and incorporation of various cults, the Gopala Krishna sub-sect of Vaishnavism came to be recognised as the most prominent and popular in Rajasthan from the Gupta Period onwards, [64] But the philosophical tenets, needless to say, were introduced later on. Raghava Pandita [65] quoting some references from the Tantric (Sanmohana-tantra, Krishna-yamala, Varaha-Samhita) and Pauranic (Padma Purana, scriptures prescribes the procedures for worshipping the sub-sect. Again, in the Haribhaktivilasa [66] an exhaustive account is recorded regarding the method of meditation of this cult. In fact, there are innumerable literary references in the mediaeval period for proving the prevalence of the worship of this cult in ancient times. [67]
The Brhat-tantra-sara [68] quoting earlier traditions furnishes us with information about the ritualistic procedures of the worship of the child-god. The mantra prescribed for worshipping this god clearly hinted at the existence of a separate cult of Balagopala. [69]
Moreover the lyrical expression and the graphic description of Gopala-Krishna in the Gopala stavas [70] of the same text are nothing but the representations of vivid iconic imagery of child-god that have been carved on the various temples of this land as well as other Vaishnava-shrines of India.
The study of the Gopala-Krishna sub sect in Rajasthan remain uncomplete unless we mention here the observations of Col. James Tod in his narrative on Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan. The cult centering round Bala Krishna was considered one of the seven statues of Vishnu or Nathji who stands supreme. [71]
“Bal-Krishhna”, observes Tod, “the third son, had Dwarka Nath, which statue, now at Kankroli in Mewar, is asserted to be the identical image that received the adoration of Raja Umrika, a prince of the solar race who lived in the Satya Yuga, or silver age. The ‘god of mount’ revealed himself in a dream to his high-priest, and told him of the domicile of this his representative at Kannouj.” [72] Thus a sub-sect centering round the early life of Gopala-Krishna, originated in Rajasthan and its neighboring regions, like Mathura, Gokula e.t.c., from the early centuries of the Christian era.
REFERENCES
[1] The earliest reference to the prevalence of Bhagavatism in Rajputana is given by the Ghosundi (near Nagari, 8 miles north of Chittorgarh) inscription of king Sarvatata (Select inscription, D.C. Sircar, pp. 91-2). It speaks of the construction of an enclosing stone wall round the place of worship of Sankarshana and Vasudeva in the Narayana-Vatika by the Bhagavata king Sarvatata who is identified with a Kanva king of the second half of the first century B. C. The most informative as well as interesting point of this inscription is that ahimsa or non-violence had not yet become a cardinal feature of Vaishnavism, because it is recorded that the donor of the Narayana-Vatika performed an Ashvamedha sacrifice, though he was a Bhagavata.
[2] Indian Historical Quarterly (IHQ), XXX, No. 4, 1954, p. 340.
[3] A L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India, p. 308.
[4] Gopala-Krishna sub-sect in Rajasthan Dr. Pranabananda Jash, Proceedings of Rajasthan History Congress, 1976, pp.12-25.
[5] Jayakhya Samhita, II. 14.
[6] Sundarananda, IX. 18.
[7] Bhagavat Ggita, XVIII. 1.
[8] Mudraraksasa, VI. I. 1.
[9] Meghaduta, V. 15; B.S. Upadhyaya, India in Kalidasa, p. 309.
[10] Gita-Govinda, IV. 23.
[11] Ibid., X. 17.
[12] IHQ, XXX, 1954, pp. 343 ff; Progress Report, Arch. Sur. of India, Western Circle, Poona, 1907, 1919, 1921, Arch Sur. Report, 1905-6, 1909-10; S.P. Srivastava, Rajasthan and its Traditions, Jaipur, 1951.
[13] II. 41. 6 ff.
[14] The Religions of India, p. 457.
[15] An Outline of the Religious Literature of India (ORLI), p. 100, footnote – 6.
[16] HariVansha, II. 18.
[17] Vishnu Purana, V. 11.
[18] Bhagavata Purana, X. 26.
[19] Gopala-Krishna sub-sect in Rajasthan Dr. Pranabananda Jash, Proceedings of Rajasthan History Congress, 1976, pp.12-25.
[20] Raivataka, VII, p. 46; B.B. Majumdar, Krishna in History and Legend (KHL), p. 252.
[21] Select Inscriptions, p. 377, “Pravrtkale Subhe Prapte manastustikare nrnam meghe pranrtte Sakkrasya Krishnasyanumate tada.”
[22] Vishnudharmottara, II. 154.
[23] Brhat Samhita, 42, 1-7.
[24] IHQ., XXX, 1954, p. 352; These memorial pillars are found at Kekind (outside the Jaina temple and also in the local Bazar), Arna (12 miles from Jodhpur), Merta Road (in the Brahmani temple), Ludrava (near Jaisalmer) etc.
[25] S. Chattopadhyaya, Evolution of Theistic Sects in Ancient India (ETSAI), pp. 39-40.
[26] Bhagavata Purana, (Gita Press), X. 6. 5.
[27] Mahabharata (Vulgate), Salya Parva, IX, 46. 16.
[28] Susruta, Cikitsasthana, Adhyaya XX, VV. 57-60.
[29] HariVansha (Poona ed. Chitrasala Press), II 3. 22.
[30] Paumacariya, V. 52., 227.
[31] History of Banswara State (Hindi). p. 19.
[32] The Early History of the Vainsnava Sect (EHVS.), p. 75.
[33] Arthasastra, XI V. 3., In this connection we may mention that the prevalence of the cult of Herakles, who is none else than Krishna, in the Mathura region has been testified to by Megasthenes in the fourth century B. C. Mc Crindle, Ancient India as described by Megasthenes and Arrian, p. 206.
[34] Barth thinks that Krishna was ‘probably at first the Kulad vata the ethnic god, of some powerful confederation of Rajput clans’ – Religions of India, p. 168.
[35] Patanjali on Panini, III. I. 26., Mahabhasya, II. pp. 34-36.
[36] EHVS., pp. 50-51
[37] ET SAI., p. 37.
[38] S. P. Srivastava, Rjasthan and its Traditions, Jaipur, 1951, p. 28., 1HQ, XXX, p. 342.
[39] Arch. Sur. Report., 1908-9, p. 110., IHQ. XXX p. 347.
[40] Proceedings of the Indian History Congress (IHC), 1954, p. 163.
[41] The earliest representation of Krishna’s amorous expression with the gopis is possibly depicted in the Paharpur (Bangladesh) sculptures of the late Gupta period. Farquhar points out that “the dramatist Bhasa, who probably dates from the third century A. D., has a play called Bala-Charita which tells the story of Krishna’s youth as its name indicates. In it the Hallisa sport is merely an innocent dance. In the Vishnu Purana there are already various erotic touches which go a good deal further, while in the Hari Vansha the whole story of his youth is told at much greater length” (ORLI. p. 144).
[42] B. B. Majumdar, KHL, pp. 165 ff.
[43] S. K. De, Vaishnava Faith and Movement (VFM), p. 7.
[44] Ibid., pp 7-8.
[45] ETSAI, p. 153.
[46] KHL, p. 287.
[47] Vaishnavism Shaivism and other Minor Sects, (VSMS), pp. 37-38.
[48] Mahabhasya, I. p. 252.
[49] The Greeks in Bactria and India (1951), pp. 171-172
[50] Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Jaipur Session, 1951, p. 96.
[51] Mirashi (Corpus Ins Indicarum, IV, p. xxxi f.), Buddha Prakash (JBRS, XL; pp. 249-65) and others (IHC, 1959, pp. 103 ff., JBRS, XLI, pp 160 ff) are not inclined to share with the theory of foreign origin of the Abhiras They, on the other hand, think that the Abhiras were an aboriginal people residing in the punjab before the Aryan came to India.
[52] Vishnu Purana (Gita Press), V. 10. 27-28.
[53] Bhag. Purana (Gita Press) X. 24-21
[54] B. B. Majumdar, KHL., p. 269.
[55] Schoff, p. 39.
[56] Mc Crindle, Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy, p 140,
[57] Mahabharata (Vul), XVI. 7. 45 ff.
[58] VSMS, p. 37.
[59] Ibid., p. 37.
[60] Indian Theism, p. 275., A. L. Basham, The Wonder That was India,p. 308.
[61] Hinduism and Buddhism, III, p. 427.
[62] H. C. Raychaudhuri, Op. cit., p. 74.
[63] ETSAI, p. 98.
[64] It is to be noted in this connection that though the Gopala Krishna sub sect was gradually gaining its prime position in Vaishnavism, the old form-i.e. the existence of comingling of both the Vedic and the Pauranic forms of Vishnu worship, did not entirely disappear. The Barnala (Old Jaipur State) sacrificial pillar inscription (EP. Indica, XXVI, No. 12) of the year 279 A. D. records the performance of Five Triratra sacrifices and expresses the wish that god Vishnu may be pleased. It shows the prevalence of the Vedic worship of Vishnu connected with the Vedic sacrifices than with the Pauranic Vaishnavism. The Nandsa (Sahara Dist., Old Udaipur State) Yupa inscription (EI, XXVIII, No. 43., Indian Antiquary, LVIII, 1929, p. 53., JNS1, xx, 1958, p. 199) of the third century A. D. also throws light on the close relation between the Vedic and the Pauranic forms of Vishnu worship It records the performance of Vedic sacrifices after constructing the shrines of Brahma, Indra, Prajapati and Vishnu.
[65] Bhaktiratna prakasa (Edited. Haridas Das)., pp. 26, 39, 65, 117.
[66] Haribhaktivilasa (Berhampore edition), Gopala Bhatta, Chs, VI, VII, XVI.
[67] KHL, pp. 170 ff.
[68] Brhat-tantra-sara (Basumeti Publication), ed. Sri Krishnananda Agamavagisa, pp. 187-90,506-7.
[69] Ibid., Balagopala Mantrah,, pp. 187-190.
[70] Ibid., Gopala-Stotram, pp. 506-507.
[71] Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, pp. 436-37.
The seven statues of Vishnu or Nathji were brought from the different regions of Rajasthan showing the wide prevalence of Vaishnava faith in this land. The names and present abodes of the gods are also referred to in this connection:-
a. Nonita……… Nat’hdwara
b. Mat’hura-Nath………Kotah
c. Dwar-ca-Nath……… Kankerowli
d. Gokul-Nath, or Gokul-Chandrama……… Jaipur
e. Yadu-Nath………Surat
f. Vital-Nath……… Kotah
g. Mudhun Mohuna……… Jaipur.
The names of Kotah and Jaipur are mentioned twice showing the importance of these two places for Vaishnavism in ancient times. Moreover, Krishna, has been referred to twice as the lord of his residing place, while his racial name is not dropped out. This account recorded in Tod’s narrative proves the historicity and authenticity of the earlier literary evidences, regarding the existence of this sub-sect in ancient India, particularly in Rajasthan.
[72] Ibid., p. 437.
